Januarti Jaya Ekaputri, Yudha Gusti Wibowo, Hana Safitri, Setyo Budi Kurniawan, Dedy Anwar, Widi Astuti, Yayat Iman Supriyatna, Siti Nurul Aisyiyah Jenie, Ferian Anggara, Ari Widayanti, Anjas Handayani, Himawan Tri Bayu Murti Petrus
Fly ash and bottom ash (FABA) are major solid by-products of coal combustion in steam power plants that pose environmental, economic, and regulatory challenges worldwide. In Indonesia, the rapid expansion of coal-fired power generation has resulted in substantial quantities of FABA, with total estimated waste production reaching over 8.3 million tons by 2019, according to national production figures. Historically, utilization rates of FABA in Indonesia have been low, limiting potential benefits for circular economy applications. However, recent national and industry efforts have stimulated significant increases in reuse and valorization. For example, cumulative FABA utilization by Indonesia’s national electricity company (PLN) exceeded 2.06 million tons in 2022, more than doubling the amount reused in previous years, and reached approximately 3.44 million tons in 2025 as reported by industry sources. These trends reflect ongoing policy shifts (e.g., the reclassification of FABA as non-hazardous waste) and agriculture, management in environment and innovations in construction that enhance the potential of the circular economy. This review systematically examines the recent trend of FABA generation and utilization in Indonesia, compares national practices with global patterns, and identifies technological, regulatory, and market opportunities and constraints. The updated assessment of FABA trends and policies provides important insights into how Indonesia can accelerate sustainable waste valorization within broader national development goals. © The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2026.
Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Civil, Planning and Geo Engineering, Institut Teknologi Sepuluh Nopember, Kampus ITS, Sukolilo, Surabaya, 60111, Indonesia; Department of Chemical Engineering (Sustainable Mineral Metallurgical Processes Research Group), Faculty of Engineering, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Jl. Grafika 2, Yogyakarta, 55281, Indonesia; Sustainable Mining and Environmental Research Group, Department of Mining Engineering, Institut Teknologi Sumatera, Lampung, Indonesia; Research Centre for Environment and Clean Technologies, National Research and Innovation Agency (BRIN), Jakarta Pusat, 10340, Indonesia; Research Center for Mineral Processing, National Research and Innovation Agency (BRIN), Jalan Ir. Sutami Km.15, Tanjung Bintang, Sindang Sari, Lampung Selatan, Kabupaten Lampung Selatan, Lampung, 35361, Indonesia; Research Center for Advanced Chemical, National Research and Innovation Agency (BRIN), Jl. Puspiptek Serpong, Kec. Setu, Kota Tangerang Selatan, Banten, 15314, Indonesia; Department of Geological Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Jl. Grafika 2, Yogyakarta, 55281, Indonesia; Department of Transportation Engineering, Universitas Negeri Surabaya, Kampus UNESA Ketintang, Surabaya, 60231, Indonesia; PT Semen Indogreen Sentosa, HK Tower Lantai 17, Jl. MT Haryono kav 8, Jakarta Timur, Indonesia; Unconventional Georesources Research Group (UGRG), Faculty of Engineering, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Jl. Grafika 2, Yogyakarta, 55281, Indonesia
